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People of the Revolutionary War | Patriots of the American Revolution | Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) - New York
> Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr's Duel
Alexander Hamilton was one of the most influential of the United States' Founding
Fathers. As the first secretary of the treasury he placed the new nation on a firm financial footing, and although
his advocacy of strong national government brought him into bitter conflict with Thomas
Jefferson and others, his political philosophy was ultimately to prevail in governmental development. Hamilton's
own career was terminated prematurely when he was killed in a duel with
Aaron Burr in 1804.
Early Life
Hamilton was born on the West Indian island of Nevis, probably in 1755. Since he was the illegitimate son of
Rachel Fawcett Lavien and James Hamilton, both of West Indian trading families, his exact birth date and the
circumstances of his early life are difficult to determine. Modern research has established, however, that he
was probably not born in 1757, as he and his children supposed; that he spent his youth mostly on the island
of Saint Croix apprenticed as a clerk; and that in 1772 he was sent to New York City by his guardian, the merchant
Nicholas Cruger.
Hamilton was obviously precocious, and his guardian sought to enroll him in the College of New Jersey at
Princeton. When refused permission there to accelerate his program of studies, he enrolled instead at King's
College (now Columbia University), New York City, in 1773 or 1774. In 1774-75, when he was not yet 20, he entered
the growing dispute between the American colonies and the British government by writing many fervent tracts
filled with doctrines of rebellion and natural rights derived from the philosopher John Locke.
Hamilton's bent, however, was toward action, so he enlisted in the militia and fought in the battles around New
York City in 1775 and 1776. His zeal and organizing ability brought him to George Washington's attention and
led to a commission, in March 1777, as lieutenant colonel in the Continental
Army and aide-de-camp to its commander. He served with Washington for four years. Though admired as a superb
staff officer, Hamilton longed for a field command, which he achieved in time to lead a regiment of New York
troops at the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781.
Hamilton's personal life and social position in the new nation took a decisive turn in December 1780, when
he married Elizabeth Schuyler, daughter of the wealthy and influential General
Philip Schuyler. This connection placed Hamilton in the center of New York society. In 1782, shortly after
leaving the army, he was admitted to legal practice in New York and became assistant to
Robert Morris (1734-1806), who was then superintendent of finance. Well before his 30th birthday, then,
Hamilton had had a distinguished military career, knew intimately most of the leaders of the American Revolution,
had achieved high social standing, and was recognized as one of the leading lawyers in the country.
The Constitution and Federalism
Elected a member of the Continental Congress in 1782, Hamilton at
once became a leading proponent of a stronger national government than that provided for by the
Articles of Confederation. As aide to Washington he had observed
the debilitating effect of "an uncontrollable sovereignty in each state" and called repeatedly for
a strengthened Congress and more efficient executive departments. As a New York delegate to the
Constitutional Convention of 1787, he advocated a national government
that would have virtually abolished the states and even called for a president-for-life to provide energetic
leadership. He left the convention at the end of June, but he approved the Constitution subsequently drafted
by his colleagues as preferable to the Articles, though it was not as strong as he wished it to be.
With John Jay and James Madison, Hamilton wrote a
series of papers (published in book form as The Federalist, 1788) urging the people of New York to ratify the
new Constitution. His brilliant essays on the need for a stronger
union, the utility of a national taxing power, and the importance of the executive and judicial branches of
the federal government became classic statements of his political philosophy of strong leadership in the public
interest. At the New York ratifying convention of June-July 1788, Hamilton and his allies defeated the previously
dominant antifederal forces in the state.
Hamilton was the obvious choice to be the first secretary of the treasury under the new constitution. Holding
this office from Sept. 11, 1789, to Jan. 31, 1795, he proved himself a brilliant administrator both in organizing
the Treasury Department and in assisting generally to set guidelines for and staff all the departments of
government. Most notably, however, he sent reports to Congress on the public credit and on the national bank.
Hamilton argued that if the nation was to grow and prosper, its credit would have to be sound to encourage
both foreign and domestic investment.
Alexander Hamilton, c. 1792
John Trumbull (1756 - 1843) oil on canvas - National Gallery of Art
Secretary of the Treasury
He proposed, therefore, to pay the nation's debts in full and also to assume the unpaid debts of the
various states. He urged this candidly as a means of both diminishing the fiscal importance of the
states and cementing the loyalty of wealthy commercial interests to the federal government. With the
nation's economy thus buttressed and biased toward commerce, Hamilton proposed that a national bank be
established to help the federal government manage the nation's trade and finance. These proposals were
accepted by Congress, and the Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791. His recommendations for a
broad range of tariffs and bounties to stimulate the growth of manufacturing were not adopted at this
time, however.
Hamilton's plans were so comprehensive and so brilliantly useful to commercial expansion that he aroused
the opposition of Madison, Jefferson, and others who believed that such a strong government, informally
allied as it was with the worldwide trading dominance of Great Britain, would subordinate agriculture
and subvert the republican ideals of the American Revolution. Scorning the Jeffersonians as timid and
backward-looking, Hamilton, with Washington's continuing support, organized a congressional majority
for his policies.
He then took the lead in urging rapprochement with Great Britain, which culminated in Jay's Treaty (1794),
and in firmly suppressing the so-called Whiskey Rebellion (1794),
which was provoked by his excise taxes. By the time he retired from the Treasury Department in 1795, he
had established the administrative and policy foundations of the new government, articulated a philosophy
of "loose construction" of the Constitution, and
founded, informally, the conservative Federalist Party as the instrument of his intentions.
Later Years
This and other opposition by Hamilton so frustrated and angered Burr that he challenged Hamilton to a
duel. The two men fought at Weehawken, N.J., on July 11, 1804. Hamilton apparently fired into the air,
but Burr took direct aim. Hamilton fell mortally wounded and died the next day in New York. He was
buried in Trinity churchyard, New York City. He left his wife and seven children heavily in debt,
but friends soon paid off the debts. Hamilton was mourned by his countrymen as one who had devoted
his life to the nation's growth in freedom and prosperity.
On leaving the government Hamilton resumed a busy and lucrative law practice. He continued to have a
strong influence in the public councils, however. He supported a defiant posture toward France during
the XYZ Affair (1798), and as inspector general of the army (1798-1800) he took charge of organizing
the nation's defenses. Bitterly disappointed in President John Adam's
erratic leadership, Hamilton openly opposed Adams's reelection in 1800. When it appeared, however,
that Aaron Burr might win the presidency over Jefferson, Hamilton unhesitatingly threw his support
to Jefferson, whose policies he scorned, rather than to Burr, whom he regarded as a man without
principles.
- The Alexander Hamilton - Biography of Hamilton as a revolutionary figure.
- Alexander Hamilton Discussion Port - Forum and live chat devoted to discussing the life and works of Alexander Hamilton.
- Alexander Hamilton on the Web - A guide to Alexander Hamilton with links to sites about his life and writing.
- Fact Sheet OPC-10 -- Biographical Sketch of Alexander Hamilton - From The Department of Treasury Learning Vault.
- USA: Alexander Hamilton - Extensive biography, divided by period.
- ClassicNotes: Federalist Papers - Summary and analysis of Federalist Papers by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison written by Harvard students. Includes a biography, message board, links and background information on The Federalist Papers.
- The Federalist - "The Federalist Papers, 1787; Eighty-four articles in support of the new Federal Constitution."
- The Federalist Papers - Complete etext from the Univ. of Va.
- The Federalist Papers - Etext at Project Gutenberg.
- The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison - Lengthy. Includes complete online HTML text, extensively annotated, with references cross-linked to the Encyclopedia of the Self.
- The Federalist Papers Campfire - Discussion forum devoted to the Federalist Papers and Jay, Madison, and Hamilton.
- The Federalist Papers Online - Essays written by Hamilton, Madison and Jay explaining and promoting the proposed American government.
Alexander Hamilton Gravestone
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